The concept of liberty has been a cornerstone of political and philosophical discourse for centuries, prompting thinkers to grapple with its definition, its relationship to determinism, and its practical implications for society. Among the most influential voices in this debate were the Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume and the English novelist and magistrate Henry Fielding. While both men were deeply concerned with human freedom and social order, their approaches diverged significantly. Hume, through his empirical philosophy, argued for a reconciliation of liberty with necessity, viewing free actions as those caused by internal volitions. Fielding, operating from a more literary and practical perspective, emphasized individual moral responsibility and the potential for virtuous action within a providentially ordered world. Comparing their perspectives reveals distinct yet complementary understandings of what it means to be free.
David Hume's treatment of liberty is intrinsically linked to his broader epistemological project, which championed empirical observation over abstract speculation. In An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Hume argues that all human knowledge derives from sensory experience and that our understanding of cause and effect is based on the constant conjunction of events, not on any inherent necessity in nature. This empirical approach extends to human action. Hume posits that liberty is not a contra-causal power, allowing individuals to act independently of all antecedent causes. Instead, he defines liberty as "a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will." This means that an action is free if it originates from the agent's desires, intentions, or character, and is not externally coerced. This is what Hume terms "liberty of spontaneity." He believes this conception of liberty is perfectly compatible with necessity, which he understands as "a perpetual and uninterrupted conjunction of similar events." For Hume, human actions are necessarily caused by our motives and character, but so long as these motives are internal and lead to voluntary actions, those actions are considered free. He famously states, "By liberty, then, we can only mean a manner of operating, which arises from our character and disposition." This deterministic framework, far from undermining liberty, actually provides the foundation for moral responsibility. If actions were truly uncaused, they would be random and unpredictable, making it impossible to hold individuals accountable for them. Hume’s system, therefore, suggests that our actions are both necessary (determined by internal causes) and free (originating from our will).
Henry Fielding, while not a systematic philosopher in the vein of Hume, offers a rich exploration of liberty through his novels and his practical work as a magistrate. In works like Tom Jones and Amelia, Fielding depicts characters whose freedom is tested by external circumstances and internal passions, but who possess a fundamental capacity for moral choice. Fielding’s worldview, influenced by his Christian faith and belief in divine providence, posits a universe where human beings are endowed with free will and are ultimately responsible for their actions. Unlike Hume’s focus on the causal chain of volition, Fielding is more concerned with the moral character of the agent and the consequences of their choices. He illustrates how individuals, through reason and conscience, can overcome baser instincts and act virtuously. For instance, the character of Tom Jones, despite his youthful indiscretions and susceptibility to temptation, ultimately demonstrates a fundamentally good heart and a capacity for self-correction, guided by an innate sense of honour and justice. Fielding's emphasis on justice, particularly in his role as a magistrate, reflects a belief in the importance of law and order as necessary frameworks for the exercise of liberty. He believed that true liberty was not an absence of restraint, but rather the freedom to act in accordance with reason and moral duty, within a just social structure. This freedom, for Fielding, was contingent upon an individual's cultivation of virtues like prudence, temperance, and benevolence.
The divergence between Hume and Fielding on liberty is not one of outright contradiction but of differing emphases and methodologies. Hume, the philosopher, seeks to establish a logically consistent theory of liberty that can coexist with a deterministic universe, focusing on the internal mechanics of volition. His liberty is a philosophical construct, explained through causal analysis. Fielding, the novelist and moralist, explores liberty through the lived experience of his characters, highlighting the practical and ethical dimensions of free choice. His liberty is a lived reality, shaped by moral development and societal context. Hume’s empirically derived liberty allows for moral accountability by grounding it in predictable character. Fielding’s divinely endowed free will necessitates moral accountability as an inherent aspect of human existence. Both thinkers, however, converge on the idea that liberty is not absolute licence but is connected to responsibility and social order. Hume’s "liberty of spontaneity" requires a stable character and predictable motives, which are essential for a functioning society. Fielding’s emphasis on virtuous action and just laws also points to the need for a structured environment in which individuals can exercise their moral freedom effectively. Ultimately, Hume provides a theoretical framework for understanding how freedom can exist alongside causal necessity, while Fielding illustrates the practical and moral implications of this freedom in the human drama.