Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics presents a teleological framework for understanding human conduct, positing that all actions aim at some good. For Aristotle, this ultimate good, the summum bonum of human life, is eudaimonia, often translated as flourishing or living well. This state is not a fleeting emotion but a sustained condition achieved through virtuous activity in accordance with reason over a complete life. The treatise systematically examines the nature of virtue, distinguishing between intellectual and moral virtues, and argues that cultivating the latter through habit is essential for achieving eudaimonia. Therefore, understanding Aristotle's conception of virtue, the role of habituation, and the rational pursuit of the good is key to grasping his vision of the good life.
Moral virtue, according to Aristotle, is a disposition to behave in the right way, a mean between two extremes of vice, one of excess and the other of deficiency. For instance, courage is the mean between rashness and cowardice. This "golden mean" is not a mathematical average but relative to the individual and the situation. One does not become courageous by simply knowing what courage is, but by repeatedly acting courageously. This is where habituation, or ethos, becomes central. Aristotle states that "we become just by doing just acts, and temperate by doing temperate acts." Moral virtues are acquired through practice, much like a craftsperson learns their trade. We are not born with virtues, but rather develop them by performing virtuous actions until they become second nature. This process requires guidance and education, as young people may lack the experience to discern the mean correctly.
Intellectual virtues, conversely, are acquired through teaching and learning. These include sophia (wisdom), phronesis (practical wisdom), and episteme (scientific knowledge). Phronesis is particularly crucial for moral virtue because it enables us to identify the appropriate action in any given circumstance, thus finding the mean. A person with phronesis can deliberate well about what is good and expedient for themselves and for human life in general. This practical wisdom bridges the gap between abstract knowledge of virtue and the actual practice of virtuous action. It allows us to apply general principles to specific, often complex, situations, demonstrating that the intellectual and moral spheres are deeply intertwined in the pursuit of eudaimonia.
The ultimate aim of all these virtuous activities, both moral and intellectual, is eudaimonia. Aristotle clarifies that this is not mere pleasure or honor, though these may accompany a flourishing life. Instead, eudaimonia is "an activity of the soul in accordance with complete virtue." It is the exercise of our highest human capacities—our capacity for reason and our capacity for moral action—to their fullest extent. A life of contemplation, which involves the exercise of our most divine faculty, reason, is presented as the highest form of eudaimonia. However, Aristotle acknowledges that such a life may not be fully achievable for most humans, and a life of practical virtue, engaged in the affairs of the city and community, also constitutes a worthy and happy existence. The key is that eudaimonia is an active state, not a passive reception of fortune.
Aristotle also addresses the role of external goods, such as wealth, health, and friends. While not constitutive of eudaimonia itself, these goods are often necessary conditions for its full realization. A person suffering extreme poverty or illness may find it difficult to act virtuously or engage in the contemplative life. Friendship, in particular, is highly valued, seen as a reflection of oneself and a source of support in the pursuit of the good. However, the ultimate determinant of eudaimonia remains the virtuous activity of the soul. Fortune can play a role, but it cannot wholly define or negate a life of genuine flourishing if that life is characterized by consistent virtuous action and rational engagement.
In conclusion, Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics provides a comprehensive ethical system centered on the pursuit of eudaimonia through the cultivation of virtue. By emphasizing habituation for moral virtues and learning for intellectual virtues, particularly practical wisdom, Aristotle offers a practical guide to living a good and fulfilling life. The ideal life is one where reason guides action, leading to consistent virtuous behavior and ultimately to human flourishing, a state achieved not through chance or passive enjoyment, but through deliberate, active engagement with the world in accordance with our highest capacities.