Howard Zinn’s A People's History of the United States consistently challenges traditional narratives of American exceptionalism by centering the experiences of marginalized groups and critiquing the actions of those in power. Chapter Seven, titled "The Empire and the People," is a powerful distillation of this critical approach, dissecting the period of American expansionism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Zinn argues that this era, often celebrated as a triumph of national ambition and manifest destiny, was in reality a period of aggressive imperialism driven by economic interests and a disregard for the sovereignty of other nations and peoples. He details how the United States, having consolidated its power domestically, turned its gaze outward, engaging in military interventions and territorial acquisitions that fundamentally altered its role on the global stage and contradicted its founding ideals.
The chapter begins by examining the Spanish-American War of 1898, framing it not as a noble crusade to liberate Cuba, but as a strategic move to assert American dominance in the Caribbean and Pacific. Zinn highlights the economic motivations behind the war, pointing to the interests of American industrialists and financiers who saw opportunities in Cuba's sugar and tobacco industries and the Philippines' markets. He quotes journalist Oswald Garrison Villard’s assertion that the war was initiated "not by the people, but by the jingo press and the politicians." The subsequent annexation of the Philippines, following a brutal war of suppression against Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldo, serves as a prime example of American hypocrisy. Zinn illustrates how the rhetoric of freedom and self-determination used to justify intervention was abandoned when it conflicted with American territorial ambitions. The Filipino-American War, lasting from 1899 to 1902, resulted in hundreds of thousands of Filipino deaths, a stark contrast to the narrative of liberation.
Zinn also delves into the annexation of Hawaii, which he portrays as a classic case of economic exploitation and political manipulation. He recounts the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893 by American businessmen and sugar planters, with the tacit support of U.S. naval forces. This act of aggression, he argues, was driven by the desire to control Hawaii's lucrative sugar industry and to secure a strategic naval base in the Pacific. The chapter emphasizes the role of American corporations in shaping foreign policy, demonstrating how the pursuit of profit often superseded any genuine commitment to democratic principles or international law. Zinn challenges the notion that expansion was a natural or inevitable progression, instead presenting it as a deliberate and often violent imposition of American power.
Furthermore, Chapter Seven scrutinizes the Open Door Policy in China, another illustration of American economic imperialism. While presented as a means to ensure equal trading access for all nations, Zinn argues it was a strategy to prevent European powers from dominating China and to secure American access to its vast markets. He notes the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, in which an international force, including American troops, suppressed a Chinese nationalist uprising, further demonstrating U.S. involvement in asserting control over Chinese affairs. Zinn’s analysis reveals a consistent pattern: American foreign policy during this era was largely dictated by the needs of its burgeoning industrial economy, seeking new markets and resources through military might and diplomatic pressure.
In conclusion, Zinn’s Chapter Seven offers a starkly different interpretation of American expansionism. He dismantles the heroic myths and patriotic justifications, revealing a history driven by greed, power, and a profound disrespect for the rights and lives of others. By focusing on the victims of this expansion—the Cubans, Filipinos, Hawaiians, and Chinese—Zinn forces readers to confront the darker, less celebrated aspects of American history. The chapter serves as a crucial reminder that the narrative of American progress is often built upon the subjugation and exploitation of others, and that a true understanding of the nation's past requires acknowledging these often-uncomfortable truths.